Effects of Selected Cognitive-Motor Intervention on the Level of Physical Literacy and Executive Functionsin Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Girls: A One-month Follow-up Study / Efectos de la Intervención Cognitiva-Motora Seleccionada Sobre el Nivel de Literacia Física y Las Funciones Ejecutivas en Niñas con Trastorno por Déficit de Atención e Hiperactividad: Un Estudio de Seguimiento de un Mes / Efeitos da Intervenção Cognitivo-Motora Selecionada sobre o Nível de Literacia Física e Funções Executivas de Meninas sobre o Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção/Hiperatividade: Um Estudo de Acompanhamento de Um Mês

The aim of thepresent study was to investigate the effectiveness of selected cognitive-motor intervention on the level of physical literacy (PL) and executive functions of Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) girls in a one-month follow-up plan. The statistical population included 30 girls with ADHD, all from Yazd (15 participants per group, experimental and control) were selected based on DSM-V criteria. While the control group was not exposed to any treatment andjust continued working as usual, the experimental group participated in 18 sessions (3 sessions a week) of the cognitive-motor program. In order to evaluate PL, the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy Second Edition (CAPL-2), and for executive function the Continuous Performance Test (sustained attention) and Computer Mapping of the Tower of London task (motion planning) were used. Data analysis wa also conducted using the mixed varianceanalysis test with repeated measures and an independent T-test at a significance level of p≤.05. According to the results, the experimental group had better performance in PL and executive functions (sustained attention and movement planning) in the posttest and follow-up than the pretest. But, in the control group, no significant difference was observed between the test stages. Moreover, comparing the groups, the experimental group had better performance than the control group in PL, sustained attention, and movement planning. Therefore, cognitive-motor intervention can be used to develop PL and executive functions of ADHD girls.(AU)

El objetivo del estudio fueinvestigar la efectividad de una intervención cognitiva-motora seleccionada en el nivel de la Literacia Física (PL) y funciones ejecutivas de niñas contrastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) en un plan de seguimiento de un mes. La población eran niñas con TDAH, de Yazd, 15 participantes por grupo, experimental y control, fueron seleccionadas según los criterios del DSM-V. Mientras que el grupo de control no estuvo expuesto a ningún tratamiento y siguió trabajando como de costumbre, el grupo experimental participó en 18 sesiones del programa cognitivo-motor. (3 sesiones/sem). Para evaluar la PL se utilizó Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy Second Edition (CAPL-2), y para la función ejecutiva el Continuous Performance Test (atenciónsostenida) y la tarea Computer Mapping of the Tower of London (planificación motora). Un análisis de varianza mixta con medida repetida y una prueba T independiente fue realizada a un nivel de significancia de p≤.05. De acuerdo con los resultados, el grupoexperimental tuvo mejor desempeño en PL y funciones ejecutivas (atención sostenida y planificación motora) en el posprueba y seguimiento que en la prueba previa. Pero, en el grupo de control, no se observó diferencia significativa entre las etapas de laprueba. Al comparar los grupos, se demostró que el grupo experimental tuvo un mejor desempeño que el grupo de control en PL, atención sostenida y planificación motora. Por lo tanto, la intervención cognitivo-motora se puede utilizar para desarrollar la PL y las funciones ejecutivas de las niñas con TDAH.(AU)

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar a eficácia da intervenção cognitivo-motora selecionada no nível de Literacia Física (PL) e funções executivas de meninas com transtorno de déficit de atenção/hiperatividade (TDAH) com um plano de acompanhamento de um mês. A população foi composta por 30 meninas meninas com TDAH, todas de Yazd, as quais (15 participantes por grupo, experimental e controlo) foram selecionadas com base nos critérios do DSM-V. Enquanto o grupo controlo não foi exposto a nenhum tratamento e apenas continuou trabalhando normalmente, o grupo experimental participou de 18 sessões do programa cognitivo-motor (3 sessões/semena). Para avaliar a PL, foi utilizado o Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy Second Edition (CAPL-2), e para a função executiva o Continuous Performance Test (atenção sustentada) e a tarefa de Computer Mapping of the Tower of London (planeamentomotor). A análise dos dados também foi realizada por meio do teste de análise de variância mista com medida repetida e um t test de amsotras independentescom nível designificância p≤.05. De acordo com os resultados, o grupo experimental demonstrou melhor desempenho em PL e funções executivas (atenção sustentada e planeamento motor) no pós-teste do que no pré-teste. Já no grupo controlo não frami observadasdiferenças significativas entre as etapas do teste. A comparação dos grupos evidenciou que o grupoexperimental teve melhor desempenho do que o grupo controlo na alfabetização física, atenção sustentada e planeamento motor. Portanto, a intervenção cognitivo-motora pode ser usada para desenvolver a PL e as funções executivas de meninas com TDAH.(AU)

Exerkines: A Crosstalk between Lactate Production, Exercise and Mental Health.

Muscle skeletal striated cells secrete a wide range of proteins called myokines or "exerkines", which in turn perform autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine functions. For being able to act in the communication between skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and mainly the brain, exerkines play a prominent role and potential influence on health promotion. Furthermore, we detected in the literature that one of these potential therapeutic substances derived from muscle contraction is a molecule derived from glycolytic metabolism that in the past was largely marginalized, the lactate. Currently, studies are dedicated to examining the target structures for exerkines that may contribute to the maintenance and restoration of mental health. Thus, lactate appears to be recognized as a critical mediator of exercise-related changes and their health benefits, particularly in their role in communication and coordination between organs. It is inferred that the BDNF expression mechanism can be induced by lactate, which in turn derives from the activation of SIRT pathways 1 and 2 and activates the PGC1-α cascade. The behavior of lactate concentration is intensity-dependent, directly related to the type of fast-twitch fibers (type IIb) and the recruitment of these fibers would potentiate the responses in the brain. In this sense, high-intensity exercise would establish itself as an important strategy to be considered. Despite this understanding, there is still much to be done. However, lactate appears to be a highly promising exerkine for future research initiatives and a potential biomarker to reduce illness and promote mental health.

Clinical applications of exercise in Parkinson's disease: what we need to know?

INTRODUCTION: Exploring the potential of exercise in the rehabilitation process of patients with Parkinson's (PD) may be an interesting treatment perspective. Exercise-induced responses derived from neurotrophic elements appear to ameliorate the decline in neurodegeneration. Despite this understanding, the literature needs to be updated. AREAS COVERED: Our review focuses on: a) the key mechanisms of exercise on PD, highlighting mainly the responses related to neuroplasticity; b) the effects induced by different traditional types of exercise, also highlighting the effects of complementary therapies related to movement; c) the volume of exercise required to support efficient results are explored in the context of PD. Additionally, the proposition of new clinical application strategies in the context of PD will also be determined. EXPERT OPINION: It is suggested that different intensities of aerobic exercise be explored for the treatment of PD. The results associated with high intensity seem promising for performance, physiological and clinical parameters, such as BDNF production and cognition. On the other hand, the diversification of tasks and repetition of motor gestures appear as consistent arguments to exercise prescription. Finally, for future investigations, the neuromodulation strategy in association with aerobic exercise appears as a potential inducer of benefits on gait and cognitive function.

Can regular physical exercise be a treatment for panic disorder? A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: In the last few decades, exercise has been explored as a potential tool to reduce symptoms experienced by patients with panic disorder (PD). This systematic review aims to assess the effects of regular exercise interventions on panic severity, global anxiety, and depression symptoms of these patients. AREAS COVERED: A search was conducted on PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials using search terms related to PD and exercise. Eight trials were included, Furthermore, regular exercise programs presented different methodological characteristics. There is o clear evidence indicating that regular exercise programs (at least two 20-minute sessions per week for at least 6 weeks) reduce panic-related symptoms. Regular exercise is effective in improving global anxiety measures and depression. EXPERT OPINION: Continuous aerobic exercise is the main type of intervention in the literature, generally providing a limited prescription. Currently, it is recommended the interval training, with intense and shorter stimuli, and long-term duration trials. However, despite the use of self-selected intensities and control based on the internal load be interesting as recommendation to increase adherence, careful is needed regarding training prescription due to scarce evidence.

Exercise is medicine: a new perspective for health promotion in bipolar disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Similar effects in reducing the symptoms of the mood disorder are reported in the literature compared the action of drugs and aerobic exercise sessions, demonstrating the potential of exercise in the control and mood stabilization. Therefore, there are many reasons to believe that the increased cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max) can be an important means of protection and a reducing potential of physical and mental damage in bipolar disorders (BD). This review will highlight the current pattern of response of exercise on the pathophysiology of BD, relating the possible mechanisms, and hypotheses based on exercises. AREAS COVERED: The mechanism of monoaminergic action and its relationship with exercise, role of physical conditioning and increased VO2Max on neurotrophin release, and new perspectives on long-term exercise will be reviewed. EXPERT OPINION: The adaptations to training, although little explored in the context of BD, can induce the expression of substances that co-regulate several processes related to the pathophysiology of BD. Furthermore, high intensity interval training (HIIT) can also be adjusted to improve the physical fitness and health in patients with BD. Future research is needed to adopt a training strategy that is both time efficient and adequate for the population in question.

Can caffeine intake combined with aerobic exercise lead to improvement in attentional and psychomotor performance in trained individuals?

To evaluate the acute effects of ingestion of 500 mg of caffeine in addition to aerobic exercise on the optimization of cognitive attention tasks and simple reaction time. Twenty men were randomly divided into two groups, caffeine (CAF) and placebo (PLA), and underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing and cognitive testing (D2SLK, D2GZ, D2F% and TRS). Then, both ingested 500 mg of caffeine or placebo (double blind), and after 60 min performed a 30-minute continuous exercise session at 70 % VO2Max. Cognitive tests were repeated immediately after exercise, and after 30 min. D2SLK, D2GZ, D2F% and TRS scores were compared by repeated measures ANOVA. The magnitude of the effect was established, and it was considered meaningful p = 0.05. CAF is able to alter D2SLK and also reduce D2F% (0.001 - moderate effect, 0.82) and improve the task after 30 min of exercise (p = 0.014 - moderate effect 0.95). The TRS showed significant gains for the CAF group compared to PLA (0.000 - high effect 1.76). Caffeine induces significant effects in attention and reaction time domains independent of the effect of aerobic exercise.

Acute effect of uphill running: current scenario and future hypotheses / Efeito agudo da corrida ascendente: cenário atual e futuras hipóteses

Strategies for metabolic adjustments are often considered by athletes throughout a running event. Planning for such events during training does not always include variations from level training, even though up/downhill exertion should definitely be a part of such planning. The differentiation of training stimuli, under adverse conditions of intensity and inclination, can generate differentiated benefits. However, uphill running raises expectations of deleterious effects. The imposition of different slope gradients throughout running could generate increased metabolic demands for sports performance. Thus, the present study aimed to answer questions mainly about the acute effects of uphill running, its relationship with aerobic performance, allowing us to introduce new hypotheses for future studies in the area on the subject. Gaps still need to be filled concerning the relevance of uphill running, and its determinants. Many of the points presently under scrutiny only lead to speculative explanations; for logical reasons, more studies should focus on the prescription of training at different slopes. This is the point at which specific conditioning is required, because the regulation of the effort and the energy cost resulting from the imposition of uphill running during competitive races depends heavily on previous experiences. This review will cover recently published research on the subject.

RESUMO Estratégias para ajustes metabólicos são frequentemente consideradas por atletas ao longo de um evento de corrida. O planejamento de tais eventos durante o treinamento nem sempre inclui treinamento em planos inclinados, que deveriam compor esse planejamento. Adiferenciação dos estímulos de treinamento, em condições adversas de intensidade e inclinação, pode gerar benefíciosdiferenciados. No entanto, a corrida ascendente aumenta as expectativas de efeitos deletérios. Portanto, a imposição de diferentes gradientes de inclinação ao longo da corrida poderia gerar demandas metabólicas aumentadas paradesempenho esportivo. Assim, o presente estudo tevecomo objetivo responder questões principalmente sobre os efeitos agudos da corrida ascendente, sua relação com o desempenho aeróbio e a proposição de novas possíveis hipóteses para estudos futuros sobre o assunto. Muitaslacunas ainda precisam ser preenchidas sobre a relevância da corrida ascendente e seus determinantes. Muitas das questões apresentadas apenas levam a explicaçõesespeculativas; por razões lógicas, mais estudos devemse concentrar na prescrição de treinamento em face dediferentes porcentagens de inclinação. Este é o ponto em que o condicionamento específico é necessário, porquea regulação do esforço e do custo de energia resultanteda imposição de corrida ascendente durante corridascompetitivas depende fortemente das experiênciasanteriores.

Analysis of reliability of peak treadmill running in maximum progressive effort test: influence of training level / Análise de confiabilidade da velocidade pico em teste de esforço progressivo máximo: influência do nível de treinamento

OBJECTIVE: To determine the reliability (stability) of the peak velocity measurement (VPeak) derived from the incremental maximal effort test, as well as to establish the possible influence of the level of training on these responses. METHOD: Thirty-eight male volunteers made two visits (3 - 5 days apart) to the training center where the study was conducted and performed maximal progressive running tests. The protocol consisted of increments of 0.5 km.h-1/min, starting at a running speed comfortable for each participant (7-9 km.h-1). All subjects were encouraged to achieve the maximum possible performance in both tests, with final voluntary exhaustion being the criterion for interruption. RESULTS: The intra-class correlation coefficient presented excellent consistency of measurements (ICC = 0.975 - p = 0.001). The typical relative error of the measurement was 2.6% for the stability of the measurement of VPeak. Moreover, there were no significant differences between the individual coefficients of variation for measures 1 vs. 2 (p > 0.05). Graphical representation of Bland-Altman demonstrated a homogeneous distribution of the measurement error for all dependent variables. CONCLUSION: Determination of VPeak exhibited excellent levels of reliability with small measurement errors. There was no influence of the training level on the reliability responses.

OBJETIVO: Determinar a confiabilidade (estabilidade) da medida de velocidade de pico (VPico) derivada do teste incremental de esforço progressivo máximo, bem como estabelecer a possível influência do nível de treinamento sobre estas respostas. MÉTODO: Trinta e oito voluntários fizeram duas visitas ao centro de treinamento com intervalo de três a cinco dias. Na primeira visita os voluntários assinaram um termo de consentimento, tiveram suas medidas antropométricas registradas e realizaram a primeira sessão de corrida progressiva máxima. Na segunda visita o teste progressivo máximo foi novamente realizado. O protocolo consistiu em incrementos de 0,5 km.h-1 a cada min iniciando a uma velocidade individual de corrida classificada como confortável por cada participante (7 a 9 km.h-1). Todos os participantes foram encorajados a alcançar o máximo de desempenho possível em ambos os testes, tendo como critério de finalização, a exaustão voluntária máxima. RESULTADO: O coeficiente de correlação intra-classe (CCI) apresentou excelente consistência da medida (0,975) para VPico (p = 0,001). O erro típico relativo da medida foi de 2,6% para a estabilidade da medida de VPico. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os coeficientes de variação individuais para as medidas G1 vs. G2 (p > 0,05). A representação gráfica de Bland-Altman demonstrou distribuição homogênea do erro da medida para todas as variáveis dependentes. CONCLUSÃO: A determinação da VPico exibiu excelentes níveis de confiabilidade, com pequenos erros de medida. Não houve influência do nível de treinamento sobre as respostas de confiabilidade.

Involvement of beta absolute power in motor areas after hand immobilization: An EEG study / Envolvimento da potência absoluta da banda beta após imobilização da mão: estudo eletroencefalográfico

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to analyze changes in beta band absolute power in cortical areas, before and after a condition of hand immobilization for 48 hours. METHOD: Fifteen healthy volunteers, aged between 20 and 30, were submitted to EEG assessment before and after immobilization, while performing a motor task triggered by a visual stimulus. RESULTS: Statistical analysis revealed that hand immobilization caused changes in cortical areas. Significant increases in beta band absolute power were found after hand immobilization at electrodes Fp2, C3 and P4. In contrast, at electrode C4 a decrease in beta band absolute power occurred after hand immobilization. CONCLUSION: Predominant hand immobilization, even for 48 hours, is sufficient to cause cortical changes that affect movement planning. Such changes may represent a cortical strategy to supply cortical changes in contralateral hemisphere due to immobilization. Further studies are necessary to understand cortical changes due to hand immobilization and movement planning, especially considering how much time of immobilization is necessary to promote such changes.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar mudanças na potencia absoluta da banda beta em áreas corticais, antes e depois de uma condição de imobilização da mão por 48 horas. MÉTODO: Quinze voluntários saudáveis, com idades entre 20 e 30 anos, foram submetidos à avaliação EEG antes e depois da imobilização, durante a execução de uma tarefa motora desencadeada por um estímulo visual. RESULTADOS: A análise estatística revelou que a imobilização da mão causou mudanças em áreas corticais. Um aumento significativo na potencia absoluta da banda beta foi encontrado após imobilização da mão nos eletrodos Fp2 (F (1,3823) = 4,147; p = 0,042), C3 (F (1,3563) = 5,005; p = 0,025) e P4 (F (1,3290) = 5,114; p = 0,024). No C4 eletrodo (F (1,3657) = 11,858; p = 0,001) uma diminuição da potencia absoluta da banda beta ocorreu após imobilização da mão. CONCLUSÃO: A imobilização da mão predominante, mesmo para 48 horas, é suficiente para causar alterações corticais que afetam o planejamento movimento. Tais mudanças podem representar uma estratégia cortical para fornecer alterações corticais em hemisfério contralateral devido à imobilização. Mais estudos são necessários para entender as mudanças corticais devido a imobilização da mão e planejamento do movimento, especialmente considerando quanto tempo de imobilização é necessário para promover essas mudanças.

Aerobic exercise reduces anxiety symptoms and improves fitness in patients with panic disorder / Exercícios aeróbicos reduziram os sintomas de ansiedade e melhoraram o desempenho cardiorrespiratório em portadores de transtorno de pânico

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of a regularly repeated aerobic exercise series on anxiety and maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) in Panic Disorder patients. METHODS: Ten previously sedentary female subjects diagnosed with Panic Disorder performed 36 sessions of aerobic exercise (at 70 to 75% of VO2max), 3 times per week during 12 weeks. A cardiopulmonary evaluation (ergospirometry test) was used to set the intensity of training as well as to establish baseline and post-training VO2max parameters. The assessment of anxiety symptoms was performed at baseline, at the end of the 6th and 12th weeks, using the Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) and State Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S), and the Subjective Units of Distress Scale (SUDS) questionnaires. One-way ANOVA for repeated measurements (at 3 moments: Baseline, 6th week (mid-training) and 12th week (post-training) was used to compare the evolution of the questionnaires; the Bonferroni post hoc test was applied to identify differences between moments. A dependent t-test was performed for measures of VO2max. RESULTS: Compared to baseline, (a) STAI-T showed significant anxiety reductions at mid- and post-training moments; (b) STAI-S and SUDS recorded anxiety reductions only at Post-training; (c) VO2max showed a significant improvement at Post-training. CONCLUSION: This protocol promoted beneficial effects on cardiorespiratory fitness and anxiety levels of Panic Disorder patients.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos do exercício aeróbio praticado regularmente sobre a ansiedade e o VO2max em pacientes com transtorno de pânico. MÉTODO: Dez mulheres sedentárias diagnosticadas com transtorno de pânico (TP) realizaram 36 sessões de exercícios aeróbico contínuo (70 a 75% VO2max) em esteira, 3x por semana, durante 12 semanas. Uma avaliação cardiopulmonar (teste ergo-espirométrico) definiu a intensidade do treinamento, bem como estabeleceu valores de VO2max pré e pós-treinamento. A avaliação dos sintomas de ansiedade nos três momentos (controle, 6° e 12° semana), foi realizada utilizando os questionários IDATE-T (Inventário do Traço de Ansiedade), IDATE-S (Inventário do Estado de Ansiedade) e SUDS (Unidades Subjetivas da Escala de Aflição). O teste ANOVA One-way para medidas repetidas (momentos) foi usado para comparar os questionários. O teste Bonferroni post-hoc foi aplicado para identificar as diferenças entre os momentos. As medidas de VO2max foram analisadas através de um teste de "t" dependente. RESULTADOS: Os resultados mostraram redução do IDATE-T na 6° e 12° semanas de exercício; no entanto, o IDATE-S e o SUDS monstraram uma redução apenas na 12° semana. O VO2max apresentou melhora significativa após 12 semanas de intervenção em relação à linha de base. CONCLUSÃO: Conclui-se que o protocolo adotado foi capaz de promover efeitos benéficos sobre a aptidão cardiorrespiratória e sobre os níveis de ansiedade dos pacientes com transtorno de pânico.

Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health, and Cognitive and Brain Functions in Schizophrenia: Clinical and Experimental Evidence.

Exercise promotes several health benefits, such as cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory improvements. It is believed that the practice of exercise in individuals with psychiatric disorders, e.g. schizophrenia, can cause significant changes. Schizophrenic patients have problematic lifestyle habits compared with general population; this may cause a high mortality rate, mainly caused by cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate changes in physical and mental health, cognitive and brain functioning due to the practice of exercise in patients with schizophrenia. Although still little is known about the benefits of exercise on mental health, cognitive and brain functioning of schizophrenic patients, exercise training has been shown to be a beneficial intervention in the control and reduction of disease severity. Type of training, form of execution, duration and intensity need to be better studied as the effects on physical and mental health, cognition and brain activity depend exclusively of interconnected factors, such as the combination of exercise and medication. However, one should understand that exercise is not only an effective nondrug alternative, but also acts as a supporting linking up interventions to promote improvements in process performance optimization. In general, the positive effects on mental health, cognition and brain activity as a result of an exercise program are quite evident. Few studies have been published correlating effects of exercise in patients with schizophrenia, but there is increasing evidence that positive and negative symptoms can be improved. Therefore, it is important that further studies be undertaken to expand the knowledge of physical exercise on mental health in people with schizophrenia, as well as its dose-response and the most effective type of exercise.

Aerobic Exercise Does Not Predict Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor And Cortisol Alterations in Depressed Patients.

The pathophysiology of depression is related to neurobiological changes that occur in the monoamine system, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neurogenesis system and the neuroimmune system. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the research of the effects of exercise on brain function, with a special focus on its effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cortisol and other biomarkers. Thus, the aim of this study is to present a review investigating the acute and chronic effects of aerobic exercise on BDNF and cortisol levels in individuals with depression. It was not possible to establish an interaction between aerobic exercise and concentration of BDNF and cortisol, which may actually be the result of the divergence of methods, such as type of exercises, duration of the sessions, and prescribed intensity and frequency of sessions.

Neural Mechanisms of Exercise: Effects on Gut Miccrobiota and Depression.

Microbiota is a set of microorganisms resident in gut ecosystem that reacts to psychological stressful stimuli, and is involved in depressed or anxious status in both animals and human being. Interestingly, a series of studies have shown the effects of physical exercise on gut microbiota dynamics, suggesting that gut microbiota regulation might act as one mediator for the effects of exercise on the brain. Recent studies found that gut microbiota dynamics are also regulated by metabolism changes, such as through physical exercise or diet change. Interestingly, physical exercise modulates different population of gut bacteria in compared to food restriction or rich diet, and alleviates gut syndromes to toxin intake. Gut microbiota could as well contribute to the beneficial effects of exercise on cognition and emotion, either directly through serotonin signaling or indirectly by modulating metabolism and exercise performance.

Neural Mechanism of Exercise: Neurovascular Responses to Exercise.

Physical exercise is responsible for different metabolic and hemodynamic changes, including increased cerebral blood flow and perfusion. It is known that running increases vascular endothelial growth factor expression in the brain, which is critical for the anti-depressive effects of adult neurogenesis induced by physical exercise. Both animal and human studies revealed that neurovascular responses to physical exercise are well correlated to adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition improvement. Yet it is unknown if the increased blood perfusion to hippocampus is affecting the adult neurogenesis. Manipulating systemic blood pressure, or stimulating the cerebral blood flow with alternative measures, might provide useful tools to understand how much neurovascular plasticity contributes to the brain cognition enhancement by physical exercise. In addition, it will be interesting to examine the responses of brain cells (including neuron, glia and endothelia cells) to increased shear stress and oxygen load, to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Neural Mechanisms of Exercise: Anti-Depression, Neurogenesis, and Serotonin Signaling.

Depression is associated with decreased serotonin metabolism and functioning in the central nervous system, evidenced by both animal models of depression and clinical patient studies. Depression is also accompanied by decreased hippocampal neurogenesis in diverse animal models. Neurogenesis is mainly defined in dentate gyrus of hippocampus as well as subventricular zone. Moreover, hypothalamus, amygdala, olfactory tubercle, and piriform cortex are reported with evidences of adult neurogenesis. Physical exercise is found to modulate adult neurogenesis significantly, and results in mood improvement. The cellular mechanism such as adult neurogenesis upregulation was considered as one major mood regulator following exercise. The recent advances in molecular mechanisms underlying exercise-regulated neurogenesis have widen our understanding in brain plasticity in physiological and pathological conditions, and therefore better management of different psychiatric disorders.

Potential Therapeutic Effects of Physical Exercise for Bipolar Disorder.

Cognitive deficits are observed in a variety of domains in patients with bipolar disorder (BD). These deficits are attributed to neurobiological, functional and structural brain factors, particularly in prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, cortical alterations in each phase (mania/hypomania, euthymia and depression) are also present. A growing basis of evidence supports aerobic exercise as an alternative treatment method for BD symptoms. Its benefits for physical health in healthy subjects and some psychiatric disorders are fairly established; however evidence directly addressed to BD is scant. Lack of methodological consistency, mainly related to exercise, makes it difficult accuracy and extrapolation of the results. Nevertheless, mechanisms related to BD physiopathology, such as hormonal and neurotransmitters alterations and mainly related to brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) can be explored. BDNF, specially, have a large influence on brain ability and its gene expression is highly responsive to aerobic exercise. Moreover, aerobic exercise trough BDNF may induce chronic stress suppression, commonly observed in patients with BD, and reduce deleterious effects caused by allostatic loads. Therefore, it is prudent to propose that aerobic exercise plays an important role in BD physiopathological mechanisms and it is a new way for the treatment for this and others psychiatric disorders.